Portal: Filosofia

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O portal de filosofia

Um portal para os recursos de filosofia da Wikipedia • 17.578 artigos em inglês
O pensador, uma estátua de Auguste Rodin, é frequentemente usado para representar a filosofia.
Da esquerda para a direita: Platão, Kant, Nietzsche, Buda, Confúcio, Averroes

Filosofia (do grego: φιλοσοφία, Filosofia, 'amor pela sabedoria') é o estudo sistematizado de questões gerais e fundamentais, como as sobre existência, razão, conhecimento, valores, mente e linguagem. Tais perguntas geralmente são colocadas como problemas a serem estudados ou resolvidos. Algumas fontes afirmam que o termo foi cunhado por Pitágoras (c. 570 - c. 495 aC); Outros contestam essa história, argumentando que os pitagóricos apenas reivindicaram o uso de um termo preexistente. Os métodos filosóficos incluem questionamento, discussão crítica, argumento racional e apresentação sistemática.

Historicamente, a filosofia abrangeu todos os corpos de conhecimento e um praticante era conhecido como filósofo. Desde a época do filósofo grego antigo Aristóteles até o século XIX, a "filosofia natural" abrangeu astronomia, medicina e física. Por exemplo, os princípios matemáticos da filosofia natural de 1687 de Newton tornaram -se classificados mais tarde como um livro de física. No século XIX, o crescimento das universidades de pesquisa modernas liderou a filosofia acadêmica e outras disciplinas para profissionalizar e se especializar. Desde então, várias áreas de investigação que faziam parte da filosofia se tornaram disciplinas acadêmicas separadas e, a saber, as ciências sociais como psicologia, sociologia, lingüística e economia.

Hoje, os principais subcampos da filosofia acadêmica incluem metafísica, que se preocupa com a natureza fundamental da existência e da realidade; Epistemologia, que estuda a natureza do conhecimento e da crença; Ética, que se preocupa com o valor moral; e a lógica, que estuda as regras de inferência que permitem derivar conclusões de premissas verdadeiras. Outros subcampos notáveis ​​incluem filosofia da religião, filosofia da ciência, filosofia política, estética, filosofia da linguagem e filosofia da mente. (Artigo completo ...)

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Os artigos em destaque são exibidos aqui, que representam alguns dos melhores conteúdos da Wikipedia inglesa.
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Bohr em 1922
Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [ˈne̝ls ˈpoɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)
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Um selo de Zhang Heng, emitido pela China Post em 1955
Zhang Heng (Chinese: 張衡; AD 78–139), formerly romanized as Chang Heng, was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman who lived during the Han dynasty. Educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang'an, he achieved success as an astronomer, mathematician, seismologist, hydraulic engineer, inventor, geographer, cartographer, ethnographer, artist, poet, philosopher, politician, and literary scholar.Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun (r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian Kingdom in present-day Hebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. (Full article...)
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Capa da primeira edição
The Fountainhead is a 1943 novel by Russian-American author Ayn Rand, her first major literary success. The novel's protagonist, Howard Roark, is an intransigent young architect, who battles against conventional standards and refuses to compromise with an architectural establishment unwilling to accept innovation. Roark embodies what Rand believed to be the ideal man, and his struggle reflects Rand's belief that individualism is superior to collectivism.Roark is opposed by what he calls "second-handers", who value conformity over independence and integrity. These include Roark's former classmate, Peter Keating, who succeeds by following popular styles but turns to Roark for help with design problems. Ellsworth Toohey, a socialist architecture critic who uses his influence to promote his political and social agenda, tries to destroy Roark's career. Tabloid newspaper publisher Gail Wynand seeks to shape popular opinion; he befriends Roark, then betrays him when public opinion turns in a direction he cannot control. The novel's most controversial character is Roark's lover, Dominique Francon. She believes that non-conformity has no chance of winning, so she alternates between helping Roark and working to undermine him. (Full article...)
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O problema da linguagem religiosa considera se é possível falar sobre Deus de maneira significativa se as concepções tradicionais de Deus como sendo incorpórea, infinitas e atemporais forem aceitas. Como essas concepções tradicionais de Deus dificultam a descrição de Deus, a linguagem religiosa tem o potencial de ser sem sentido. Teorias da linguagem religiosa tentam demonstrar que essa linguagem não tem sentido ou tenta mostrar como a linguagem religiosa ainda pode ser significativa. Tradicionalmente, a linguagem religiosa foi explicada como via negativa, analogia, simbolismo ou mito, cada um dos quais descreve uma maneira de falar sobre Deus em termos humanos. A Via Negativa é uma maneira de se referir a Deus de acordo com o que Deus não é; A analogia usa as qualidades humanas como padrões contra os quais comparar as qualidades divinas; O simbolismo é usado não literalmente para descrever experiências inefáveis; e uma interpretação mitológica da religião tenta revelar verdades fundamentais por trás de histórias religiosas. Explicações alternativas da linguagem religiosa o lançam como tendo funções políticas, performativas ou imperativas. (Artigo completo ...)
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Retrato de Rădulescu
Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as Eliade or Eliade Rădulescu; Romanian pronunciation: [ˈi.on heliˈade rəduˈlesku]; January 6, 1802 – April 27, 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, he was also the author of books on linguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of the Romanian Academy.Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association with Gheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education in Greek. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italian neologisms into the Romanian lexis. A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals, Heliade was among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocratic boyars in Romanian history, he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empire and clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (Full article...)
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Billings Learned Hand (/ˈlɜːrnɪd/ LURN-id; January 27, 1872 – August 18, 1961) was an American jurist, lawyer, and judicial philosopher. He served as a federal trial judge on the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York from 1909 to 1924 and as a federal appellate judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit from 1924 to 1951. Born and raised in Albany, New York, Hand majored in philosophy at Harvard College and graduated with honors from Harvard Law School. After a relatively undistinguished career as a lawyer in Albany and New York City, he was appointed at the age of 37 as a Federal District Judge in Manhattan in 1909. The profession suited his detached and open-minded temperament, and his decisions soon won him a reputation for craftsmanship and authority. Between 1909 and 1914, under the influence of Herbert Croly's social theories, Hand supported New Nationalism. He ran unsuccessfully as the Progressive Party's candidate for Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals in 1913, but withdrew from active politics shortly afterwards. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge elevated Hand to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which he went on to lead as the Senior Circuit Judge (later retitled Chief Judge) from 1939 until his semi-retirement in 1951. Scholars have recognized the Second Circuit under Hand as one of the finest appeals courts in American history. Friends and admirers often lobbied for Hand's promotion to the Supreme Court, but circumstances and his political past conspired against his appointment. (Full article...)
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Eric Alfred Havelock (/ˈhævlɒk/; 3 de junho de 1903 - 4 de abril de 1988) foi um classicista britânico que passou a maior parte de sua vida no Canadá e nos Estados Unidos. Ele foi professor da Universidade de Toronto e atuou no movimento socialista canadense durante a década de 1930. Nas décadas de 1960 e 1970, ele atuou como presidente dos departamentos de clássicos em Harvard e Yale. Embora ele tenha sido treinado na tradição de estudos clássicos de estudos clássicos da virada do século XX, que viu a história intelectual grega como uma cadeia ininterrupta de idéias relacionadas, Havelock quebrou radicalmente com seus próprios professores e propôs um modelo totalmente novo para entender o O mundo clássico, baseado em uma divisão acentuada entre a literatura dos séculos VI e V aC, por um lado, e a do quarto, por outro. Por uma profunda mudança nos tipos de idéias disponíveis para a mente humana no ponto em que a filosofia grega convertida de uma forma oral para alfabetizada. A idéia tem sido controversa em estudos clássicos e foi rejeitada por muitos dos contemporâneos de Havelock e os clássicos modernos. Havelock e suas idéias, no entanto, tiveram influência de longo alcance, tanto em estudos clássicos quanto em outras áreas acadêmicas. Ele e Walter J. Ong (que foi fortemente influenciado por Havelock) fundaram essencialmente o campo que os estudos passam da oralidade para a alfabetização, e Havelock tem sido um dos teóricos mais frequentemente citados nesse campo; Como relato da comunicação, seu trabalho afetou profundamente as teorias da mídia de Harold Innis e Marshall McLuhan. A influência de Havelock se espalhou além do estudo do mundo clássico para as de transições análogas em outros tempos e lugares. (Artigo completo ...)
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"Lisa the Skeptic" é o oitavo episódio da nona temporada da série de televisão animada americana The Simpsons. Ele foi ao ar pela FOX Network nos Estados Unidos em 23 de novembro de 1997. Em uma escavação arqueológica com sua classe, Lisa descobre um esqueleto que se assemelha a um anjo. Todas as pessoas da cidade acreditam que o esqueleto veio de um anjo, mas Lisa cética tenta convencê -los de que deve haver uma explicação científica racional. O escritor do episódio, David X. Cohen, desenvolveu a idéia depois de visitar o Museu Americano de História Natural e decidiu paralelo a temas do julgamento do Scopes Monkey. O episódio também faz alusões a fraudes reais, como a gigante de Cardiff. Foi discutido no contexto da ontologia, existencialismo e ceticismo; Também tem sido usado em aulas de educação religiosa cristã para iniciar discussões sobre anjos, ciências e fé. (Artigo completo ...)
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Lenin em 1920
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia, and later the Soviet Union, became a one-party socialist state governed by the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism.Born to an upper middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empire's Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree. He moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior Marxist activist. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye in Siberia for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent theorist in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). In 1903, he took a key role in the RSDLP ideological split, leading the Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Following Russia's failed Revolution of 1905, he campaigned for the First World War to be transformed into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement with socialism. After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the Tsar and established a Provisional Government, he returned to Russia to play a leading role in the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the new regime. (Full article...)
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O viés de confirmação é a tendência de procurar, interpretar, favorecer e recordar informações de uma maneira que confirme ou apoie as crenças ou valores anteriores. As pessoas exibem esse viés quando selecionam informações que suportam suas opiniões, ignorando informações contrárias ou quando interpretam evidências ambíguas como apoiando suas atitudes existentes. O efeito é mais forte para os resultados desejados, para questões emocionalmente carregadas e para crenças profundamente arraigadas. O viés de confirmação não pode ser eliminado, mas pode ser gerenciado, por exemplo, por educação e treinamento em habilidades de pensamento crítico. Pesquisa por meio de informações, interpretação tendenciosa dessa informação e recall tendencioso de memória, foram invocados para explicar quatro efeitos específicos: atitude A polarização (quando um desacordo se torna mais extrema, embora as diferentes partes estejam expostas à mesma evidência) a crença (quando as crenças persistem depois que a evidência para elas é falsa) o efeito de primazia irracional (uma maior dependência de informações encontradas no início uma série) correlação ilusória (quando as pessoas percebem falsamente uma associação entre dois eventos ou situações). (Artigo completo ...)
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A Árvore da Vida, retratada por Ernst Haeckel na evolução do homem (1879), ilustra a visão da evolução do século XIX como um processo progressivo que leva ao homem.
Evolutionary thought, the recognition that species change over time and the perceived understanding of how such processes work, has roots in antiquity—in the ideas of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Church Fathers as well as in medieval Islamic science. With the beginnings of modern biological taxonomy in the late 17th century, two opposed ideas influenced Western biological thinking: essentialism, the belief that every species has essential characteristics that are unalterable, a concept which had developed from medieval Aristotelian metaphysics, and that fit well with natural theology; and the development of the new anti-Aristotelian approach to modern science: as the Enlightenment progressed, evolutionary cosmology and the mechanical philosophy spread from the physical sciences to natural history. Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species; the emergence of palaeontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature. In the early 19th century prior to Darwinism, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species, the first fully formed theory of evolution. In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory, explained in detail in Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859). Darwin's theory, originally called descent with modification is known contemporarily as Darwinism or Darwinian theory. Unlike Lamarck, Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor. Darwin based his theory on the idea of natural selection: it synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal husbandry, biogeography, geology, morphology, and embryology. Debate over Darwin's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution. Alternatives to natural selection suggested during "the eclipse of Darwinism" (c. 1880 to 1920) included inheritance of acquired characteristics (neo-Lamarckism), an innate drive for change (orthogenesis), and sudden large mutations (saltationism). Mendelian genetics, a series of 19th-century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural selection by Ronald Fisher, J. B. S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright during the 1910s to 1930s, and resulted in the founding of the new discipline of population genetics. During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology—the modern synthesis. (Full article...)
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Página de título da primeira edição em inglês da Parte I
The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a work by English and American political activist Thomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position of deism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the Bible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a short-lived deistic revival. British audiences, fearing increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution, received it with more hostility. The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place of revelation, leading him to reject miracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. In The Age of Reason, he promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator-god. (Full article...)
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Arquimedes pensativo Domenico Fetti (1620)
Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης; Doric Greek: [ar.kʰi.mɛː.dɛ̂ːs]; c. 287) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Considered to be the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems, including: the area of a circle; the surface area and volume of a sphere; area of an ellipse; the area under a parabola; the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution; the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution; and the area of a spiral.Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi; defining and investigating the spiral that now bears his name; and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the principle of the lever, the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity, and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy. He is also credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. (Full article...)
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Ícone de St. Maximus
Maximus the Confessor (Greek: Μάξιμος ὁ Ὁμολογητής), also known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople (c. 580 – 13 August 662), was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar.In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)
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Página de título da primeira edição de alguns pensamentos de Locke sobre a educação (1693)
Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke. For over a century, it was the most important philosophical work on education in England. It was translated into almost all of the major written European languages during the eighteenth century, and nearly every European writer on education after Locke, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, acknowledged its influence.In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke outlined a new theory of mind, contending that the gentleman's mind was a tabula rasa or "blank slate"; that is, it did not contain any innate ideas. Some Thoughts Concerning Education explains how to educate that mind using three distinct methods: the development of a healthy body; the formation of a virtuous character; and the choice of an appropriate academic curriculum. (Full article...)
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... that Yugoslav politician Miloš Trifunović was briefly professor of zoology and botany despite graduating from the Faculty of Philosophy of the Belgrade Higher School?... that A Stanislaw Lem Reader showcases the work of one of the most widely read science fiction writers, including interviews on the relation of literature to philosophy and science?... that Mary Clarke raised eight children and managed an estate whilst corresponding by letter with philosopher John Locke?... that Polish philosopher Bronisław Bandrowski was trapped in the Tatra Mountains for days, but had already hurled himself into an abyss when rescuers arrived?... that the Correspondence of Paul and Seneca was cited in the Middle Ages to claim that Seneca, a Roman philosopher of Stoicism, had converted to Christianity?... that when Yu Dunkang was denounced as a "rightist" and banished from academia for twenty years, he found solace in the early Chinese philosophy of Xuanxue?... that according to philosopher Liu Gangji, modern Chinese aesthetics have largely resulted from the propagation of German idealism?... that the philosopher Emil Utitz, a classmate of Franz Kafka, became the head librarian of Theresienstadt Ghetto?

Filósofo selecionado da semana

Confúcio (551 aC - 479 aC)

Confúcio (chinês Kong Fuzi, literalmente "mestre Kong", tradicionalmente 28 de setembro, 551 aC - 479 aC) era um famoso pensador e filósofo social da China, cujos ensinamentos influenciaram profundamente o leste da Ásia. Vivendo no período da primavera e outono, ele estava convencido de sua capacidade de restaurar a ordem do mundo, mas falhou.

Depois de viajar pela China para promover suas idéias entre os governantes, ele acabou se envolvendo no ensino de discípulos. Sua filosofia enfatizava a moralidade pessoal e governamental, a correção das relações sociais, a justiça e a sinceridade. Esses valores ganharam destaque na China sobre outras doutrinas, como legalismo ou taoísmo durante a dinastia Han. Desde então, como a ortodoxia imperial, os pensamentos de Confúcio foram desenvolvidos em um vasto e completo sistema filosófico conhecido no Ocidente como confucionismo. Eles foram apresentados à Europa pelo jesuíta Matteo Ricci, que foi o primeiro a latinizar o nome como "Confúcio".

The Analects é uma breve coleção de suas discussões com discípulos, compilados postumamente. Ele contém uma visão geral de seus ensinamentos.

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Artigo selecionado da semana

Tao ou Dao (pronunciado "taů" ou "daů") refere -se a um caráter chinês que era de significado crucial na filosofia e religião chinesas antigas. Tao é central para o taoísmo, mas o confucionismo também se refere a ele. A maioria dos debates entre os defensores de uma das cem escolas de pensamento pode ser resumida na pergunta simples: quem está mais próximo do Tao, ou, em outras palavras, cujo "Tao" é o mais poderoso? Como usado em chinês falado e escrito moderno, o Tao tem um amplo alcance de uso e significado. Dependendo do contexto, o caráter 'Tao' pode ser traduzido como religião, moralidade, dever, conhecimento, racionalidade, verdade, caminho ou gosto final. Sua semântica varia amplamente, dependendo do contexto. Tao é geralmente traduzido para o inglês como "o caminho".

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Estes são bons artigos, que atendem a um conjunto principal de altos padrões editoriais.
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Satyanatha Tirtha (também conhecida como Satyanatha Yati) (sânscrito: सत्यनाथा तीर्थ); IAST: Śrī Satyanātha Tīrtha) (c.1648 - c.1674), também chamada Abhinava Vyasaraja, era um filósofo hindu, estudioso, teólogo, lógico e dialetículo pertencente à ordem de Dvaita da Vedanta. Ele serviu como o vigésimo pontífice de Uttaradi Math de 1660 a 1673. Ele era um escritor ardente e prolífico e muito ambicioso da glória de Dvaita Vedanta. Ele é considerado um dos fiéis da história da Escola de Pensamento de Dvaita, devido a suas elucidações sonoras das obras de Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha e Vyasatirtha. Três de suas obras doxográficas com temas polemicamente (Abhinavamruta, Abhinava Chandrika e Abhinava Tarkatandava) são remanescentes de "Vyasatraya" (os três olhos do homem-leão de Madhva Siddhāntha). Seu trabalho de refutação Abhinava Gada é uma crítica devastadora ao Madhvamathamukhamardhana de Appayya. Seu tratado independente Abhinava Chandrika é considerado um trabalho brilhante relacionado aos Brahma Sūtras, sendo um comentário sobre Tattvaprakashika de Jayatirtha. Seu trabalho, Abhinava Tarka Tandava, refutou os trabalhos dos sistemas rivais, especialmente os de Prabhākara de Mimamsa, Visistadvaita de Ramanuja e Gangesha Upadhyaya, Raghunatha Siromani da escola de Nyaya, na mesma linha, como a Tukhav Turtha Trkav. Indólogo B.N.K.Sharma escreveu: "Sua energia e determinação para esmagar a rivalidade do monismo se refletem mesmo na escolha dos títulos de alguns de seus trabalhos, quatro dos quais se chamam" Paraśus "(o machado). Uma família de estudiosos, Satyanatha Tirtha estudou as seis escolas ortodoxas de hinduísmo e, posteriormente, a filosofia de Dvaita sob Satyanidhi Tirtha de Uttaradi Math, eventualmente o sucedendo como o pontífice. B.N.K.Sharma escreveu: "Satyanatha Tirtha fez um pronunciamento ousado de que mulheres e shudras são elegíveis para Aparokshajnana exclusivamente através de Shravana de Tantra". Sharma também escreveu: "Satyanatha mantém a memória de Vyasatirtha em calorosa admiração e o refere reverencialmente como vyāsatīrthasrimaccaranah". Ele compôs 12 obras, consistindo em comentários sobre as obras de Madhva, Jayatirtha e Vyasatirtha, e vários tratados independentes que criticam os princípios das escolas contemporâneas, especialmente o Advaita, enquanto simultaneamente elaborava o pensamento de Dvaita. Sua habilidade dialética e perspicácia lógica são frequentemente comparadas com a de Vyasatirtha. (Artigo completo ...)
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Zeno do Citium, o fundador do estoicismo, na coleção Farnese, Nápoles - foto de Paolo Monti, 1969
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal eudaemonic virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that the practice of virtue is both necessary and sufficient to achieve eudaimonia—flourishing by means of living an ethical life. The Stoics identified the path to eudaimonia with a life spent practicing the cardinal virtues and living in accordance with nature.The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good nor bad in themselves (adiaphora) but have value as "material for virtue to act upon." Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics. The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved. To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature. (Full article...)
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Uma judia perseguida por homens e jovens durante o pogrom
The Lviv pogroms were the consecutive pogroms and massacres of Jews in June and July 1941 in the city of Lwów in Eastern Poland/Western Ukraine (now Lviv, Ukraine). The massacres were perpetrated by Ukrainian nationalists (specifically, the OUN), German death squads (Einsatzgruppen), and urban population from 30 June to 2 July, and from 25 to 29 July, during the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Thousands of Jews were killed both in the pogroms and in the Einsatzgruppen killings.Ukrainian nationalists targeted Jews in the first pogrom on the pretext of their purported responsibility for the NKVD prisoner massacre in Lviv, which left behind thousands of corpses in three Lviv prisons. The subsequent massacres were directed by the Germans in the context of the Holocaust in Eastern Europe. The pogroms were ignored or obfuscated in Ukrainian historical memory, starting with OUN's actions to purge or whitewash its own record of anti-Jewish violence. (Full article...)
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A unidade da tese do intelecto foi proposta por Averroes, pintada aqui pela artista do século XIV Andrea Bonaiuto.
The unity of the intellect is a philosophical theory proposed by the medieval Andalusian philosopher Averroes (1126–1198), which asserted that all humans share the same intellect. Averroes expounded his theory in his long commentary of On the Soul to explain how universal knowledge is possible within the Aristotelian theory of mind. Averroes's theory was influenced by related ideas by previous thinkers such as Aristotle, Plotinus, Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Avempace (Ibn Bajja).When Averroes's works were translated into Latin, this theory was taken up and expanded by Averroists in Western Europe in the following centuries, such as Siger of Brabant, John of Jandun and John Baconthorpe. It also influenced the secularist political philosophy of Dante Alighieri in the fourteenth century. However, it was rejected by other philosophers—including Thomas Aquinas, who wrote a detailed critique—and received condemnation by Catholic Church authorities. In modern times, it is no longer seen as a tenable theory and historian of philosophy Peter Adamson comments that it is a product of Averroes's time. (Full article...)
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Crime e punição (pré-reforma russo: пррз ні нррз иіі ирр ирі ирі ирі пр пр пр пл пл пл пл пл пл пл пл пл пл пл плі ил плі ил пзі ил пл плі иі плі ил пзhe; Foi publicado pela primeira vez na revista literária The Russian Messenger em doze parcelas mensais durante 1866. Mais tarde, foi publicado em um único volume. É o segundo dos romances de Dostoiévsky, após seu retorno de dez anos de exílio na Sibéria. Crime e punição são considerados o primeiro grande romance de seu período maduro de escrita. O romance é frequentemente citado como uma das conquistas supremas na literatura mundial. O crime e o castigo seguem a angústia mental e os dilemas morais de Rodion Raskolnikov, um ex-aluno empobrecido em São Petersburgo que planeja matar um penhor sem escrúpulos, uma velha que armazena as lojas dinheiro e objetos valiosos em seu apartamento. Ele teoriza que, com o dinheiro, ele poderia se libertar da pobreza e continuar realizando grandes ações, e procura se convencer de que certos crimes são justificáveis ​​se forem comprometidos para remover obstáculos aos objetivos mais altos dos homens "extraordinários". Uma vez feito a ação, no entanto, ele se vê atormentado por confusão, paranóia e nojo. Suas justificativas teóricas perdem todo o seu poder enquanto ele luta contra a culpa e o horror e enfrenta as consequências internas e externas de sua ação. (Artigo completo ...)
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Uma implicatura é algo que o falante sugere ou implica com uma expressão, mesmo que não seja literalmente expressa. As implicaturas podem ajudar a comunicar com mais eficiência do que explicitamente dizendo tudo o que queremos nos comunicar. Esse fenômeno faz parte da pragmática, uma subdisciplina da linguística. O filósofo H. P. Grice cunhou o termo em 1975. Grice distinguiu implicaturas de conversação, que surgem porque os falantes devem respeitar as regras gerais de conversa e as convencionais, que estão ligadas a certas palavras como "mas" ou "portanto". Tomemos, por exemplo, a seguinte troca :: a (para passador): estou sem gasolina: b: há um posto de gasolina na esquina. (Artigo completo ...)
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Mahadevi ou Durga
The Devi Upanishad (Sanskrit:देवी उपनिषत्), is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism and a text composed in Sanskrit. It is one of the 19 Upanishads attached to the Atharvaveda, and is classified as one of the eight Shakta Upanishads. It is, as an Upanishad, a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature collection that present the philosophical concepts of Hinduism.The text was likely composed between 9th- to 14th-centuries CE. It refers to Mahadevi as representing all goddesses. The Devi Upanishad is part of the five Atharvashiras Upanishads important to Tantra and Shakta philosophy traditions. (Full article...)
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Uma miniatura do século XVI mostrando uma reunião de médicos na Universidade de Paris.
The Condemnations at the medieval University of Paris were enacted to restrict certain teachings as being heretical. These included a number of medieval theological teachings, but most importantly the physical treatises of Aristotle. The investigations of these teachings were conducted by the Bishops of Paris. The Condemnations of 1277 are traditionally linked to an investigation requested by Pope John XXI, although whether he actually supported drawing up a list of condemnations is unclear.Approximately sixteen lists of censured theses were issued by the University of Paris during the 13th and 14th centuries. Most of these lists of propositions were put together into systematic collections of prohibited articles. Of these, the Condemnations of 1277 are considered particularly important by those historians who consider that they encouraged scholars to question the tenets of Aristotelian science. From this perspective, some historians maintain that the condemnations had positive effects on the development of science, perhaps even representing the beginnings of modern science. (Full article...)
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Cabeçalho da primeira edição russa, publicada em 11 de agosto de 1917
Golos Truda (Russian: Голос Труда The Voice of Labour) was a Russian-language anarchist newspaper. Founded by working-class Russian expatriates in New York City in 1911, Golos Truda shifted to Petrograd during the Russian Revolution in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the anarchist labour movement, pronounced the necessity of a social revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements.The rise to power of the Bolsheviks marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and against anarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, the Golos Truda collective was finally expunged by the Stalinist regime in 1929. (Full article...)
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Werner Erhard: A transformação de um homem, a fundação de EST é uma biografia de Werner Erhard pelo professor de filosofia William Warren Bartley, iii. O livro foi publicado em 1978 por Clarkson Potter. Bartley foi professor de filosofia na California State University e estudou com o filósofo Karl Popper. Ele foi o autor de vários livros sobre filosofia, incluindo uma biografia sobre Ludwig Wittgenstein. Erhard escreveu um prefácio do livro. A estrutura do livro descreve a educação, a transformação, a reconexão de Erhard com sua família e as teorias do treinamento em EST. O livro passou por cinco edições em seu primeiro ano. Os revisores geralmente comentaram que o livro era favorável a Erhard, e vários críticos sentiram que era indevidamente assim, ou não tinham objetividade, citando o íntimo relacionamento de Bartley com Erhard. As respostas à escrita foram misturadas; Enquanto alguns revisores acharam bem escrito e divertido, outros sentiram que o tom era muito liso, promocional ou hagiográfico. (Artigo completo ...)
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Cochrane em 2013 nas oficinas de Mancept, Universidade de Manchester
Alasdair Cochrane (born 31 March 1978) is a British political theorist and ethicist who is currently Professor of Political Theory in the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Sheffield. He is known for his work on animal rights from the perspective of political theory, which is the subject of his two books: An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory (2010, Palgrave Macmillan) and Animal Rights Without Liberation (2012, Columbia University Press). His third book, Sentientist Politics, was published by Oxford University Press in 2018. He is a founding member of the Centre for Animals and Social Justice, a UK-based think tank focused on furthering the social and political status of nonhuman animals. He joined the Department at Sheffield in 2012, having previously been a faculty member at the Centre for the Study of Human Rights, London School of Economics. Cochrane is a Sentientist. Sentientism is a naturalistic worldview that grants moral consideration to all sentient beings.Cochrane's work forms part of the political turn in animal ethics—that is, the emergence of academic literature exploring the normative aspects of human/nonhuman animal relationships from a political perspective. He is known for his interest-based account of animal rights, a theory of justice according to which animals have rights based on their possession of normatively-significant interests. The account is a two-tiered one, with individuals' strong interests grounding prima facie rights, and some prima facie rights becoming concrete, or all-things-considered, rights. In this picture, the violation of concrete rights, but not necessarily prima facie rights, represents an injustice. In particular, Cochrane argues that sentient animals' interests against suffering and death ground prima facie rights against the infliction of suffering and death. These prima facie rights convert to concrete rights in, for example, animal agriculture and animal testing, meaning that killing nonhuman animals or making them suffer for these purposes is unjust. (Full article...)
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Gwilym Ellis Lane Owen FBA ((1922-05-18) 18 de maio de 1922-(1982-07-10) 10 de julho de 1982) era um classicista e filósofo britânico que é mais conhecido como estudioso da filosofia antiga. Ele era especialista no trabalho do filósofo grego Aristóteles. Nortou de um pai galês e uma mãe inglesa em Portsmouth, Owen estudou clássicos no Corpus Christi College, Oxford, mas foi chamado para servir como oficial de inteligência na Segunda Guerra Mundial. Depois de retornar à Inglaterra, ele ensinou filosofia na Universidade de Oxford e mudou -se para uma presidente da Universidade de Harvard em 1966. Sua nomeação final foi o professor de filosofia antigo de Laurence na Universidade de Cambridge, que ele realizou de 1973 até sua morte em 1982 . (Artigo completo ...)
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Poder: Uma nova análise social de Bertrand Russell (1ª Imp. Londres 1938, Allen & Unwin, 328 pp.) É uma obra de filosofia social escrita por Bertrand Russell. O poder, para Russell, é a capacidade de alcançar objetivos. Em particular, Russell tem em mente o poder social, ou seja, o poder sobre as pessoas. O volume contém vários argumentos. No entanto, quatro temas têm um papel central no trabalho geral. O primeiro tema dado tratamento na análise é que a luxúria pelo poder faz parte da natureza humana. Segundo, o trabalho enfatiza que existem diferentes formas de poder social e que essas formas estão substancialmente inter -relacionadas. Terceiro, o poder insiste que "as organizações geralmente estão conectadas a certos tipos de indivíduos". Finalmente, o trabalho termina argumentando que "a governança arbitrária pode e deve ser moderada". (Artigo completo ...)
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Dawkins em 2010
Richard Dawkins FRS FRSL (born 26 March 1941) is a British evolutionary biologist and author. He is an emeritus fellow of New College, Oxford and was Professor for Public Understanding of Science in the University of Oxford from 1995 to 2008. An atheist, he is well known for his criticism of creationism and intelligent design.Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene, which popularised the gene-centred view of evolution and introduced the term meme. With his book The Extended Phenotype (1982), he introduced into evolutionary biology the influential concept that the phenotypic effects of a gene are not necessarily limited to an organism's body, but can stretch far into the environment. In 2006, he founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science. (Full article...)
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Estátua de Krishna no templo de Sri Mariamman, Cingapura.
Krishna (/ˈkrɪʃnə/, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳɐ] (listen); Sanskrit: कृष्ण, IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one of the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities. Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Krishna Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, which falls in late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar.The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as Krishna Leela. He is a central character in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, and the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological, and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being. His iconography reflects these legends, and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute, a young boy with Radha or surrounded by female devotees; or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to Arjuna. (Full article...)
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A seguir, são apresentadas imagens de vários artigos relacionados à filosofia sobre a Wikipedia.

Imagem 1Sigmund Freud por Max Halberstadt, c. 1921 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 2aristóteles na Escola de Atenas, por Raphael (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 3adi Shankara (século 8 dC) O principal expoente de Advaita Vedānta (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 4portrait de Immanuel Kant, c. 1790 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 5 Bronze estátua de Giordano Bruno por Ettore Ferrari, Campo de 'Fiori, Roma (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 6xiong shili por volta de 1960 (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 7Friedrich Nietzsche, fotografia de Friedrich Hartmann, c. 1875 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 8bust of Sócrates, cópia romana após um original grego do século IV aC (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 9erasmus é creditado como o príncipe dos humanistas (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 10gottlob Frege, c. 1905 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 11 A Universidade Budista de Nalanda e o Mosteiro foi um importante centro de aprendizado na Índia, desde o século V a c. 1200. (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 12bertrand Russell (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 13Map de Alexander, o grande império e a rota que ele e Pyrrho de Elis levaram para a Índia (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 14st. Anselmo de Canterbury é creditado como o fundador do Escolasticismo. (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 15William James em 1906 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 16Valluvar, o filósofo tâmil da era pós-Sangam (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 17Ferdinand de saussure (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 18georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Gravura de aço, depois de 1828 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 19confucius (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 20Abbo de Fleury (da filosofia medieval)

Imagem 21Patricia Churchland, 2005 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 22Martin Heidegger (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 23Saint Augustine. (da filosofia ocidental)

Image 24The philosopher Pyrrho of Elis, in an anecdote taken from Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism
(superior) pirro • heliensis • plistarchi • filivstranslation (de latim): pirro • grego • filho de Plistarco
(Médio) Opeterre • SapienteMhanc illivs IMitarisecvritatemtranslação (do latim): É sabedoria certa, então que tudo imita essa segurança (Pyrrho apontando para um porco tranquilo mastigando sua comida)
(inferior) Quem quiser aplicar a verdadeira sabedoria, não deve se importar com apreensão e miséria
(from Ancient Greek philosophy)

Imagem 25ionia, fonte de filosofia grega precoce, no oeste da Ásia Menor (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 26 da esquerda para a direita: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, G. Bonet Maury. Parliament of World Religions, 1893 (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 27portrait por Philippe de Champaigne, século XVII (da filosofia medieval)

Imagem 28portrait de John Locke, de Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1697 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 29edmund Husserl, na década de 1910 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 30fukuzawa yukichi (1862) Um ativista -chave dos direitos civis e pensador liberal (da filosofia oriental)

Imagem 31st. Thomas Aquinas, pintura de Carlo Crivelli, 1476 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 32Søren Kierkegaard, Esboço de Niels Christian Kierkegaard, c. 1840 (da filosofia ocidental)

Imagem 33 Pyrrho de Elis, Marblehead, Cópia Romana, Museu Arqueológico de Corfu (da Filosofia Ocidental)